Trace the Western genre’s evolution, from its early romanticized tales of frontier life to the gritty realism of modern classics like Blood Meridian. This article provides a comprehensive look at how key authors and filmmakers have redefined the Western myth for new generations and kicks off my “Myth of the West” cycle.
Introduction
The “myth of the West” occupies a central place in the American cultural imagination, rooted in tales of frontier life, rugged individualism, and untamed landscapes. The myth has evolved significantly, shaped by literature, film, and history, but at its core, it often depicts the American West as a place where freedom, adventure, and conflict between civilisation and savagery collide. This myth has served to glorify the pioneer spirit, justify expansionism, and explore themes of law, violence, and morality.
The myth’s beginnings predate its most famous early writers, such as Zane Grey, but his 1912 novel Riders of the Purple Sage helped popularise and solidify key elements. Through the 20th century, works like Warlock (1958) by Oakley Hall and Blood Meridian (1985) by Cormac McCarthy re-examined and deconstructed these myths, complicating our understanding of the West as a moral battleground. This article traces the development of the myth, exploring its changes, key figures, and its profound effect on American culture.
This article was inspired by conversations with my son, Bill, during his time at the University of Birmingham, on his degree course in English Literature. This article is the start of my “Myth of the West” cycle.
What Is the Myth of the West?
At its heart, the myth of the West is a set of stories, characters, and themes surrounding the American frontier experience. The frontier is cast as a space of opportunity, freedom, and danger, where men (predominantly white) engage in a struggle against both the wilderness and their own moral limitations. These tales have always portrayed the West as a land of lawlessness and promise, where a man’s character is tested by the harsh realities of life on the margins of civilisation.
The myth often emphasises:
- Individualism: Heroes of the West are rugged, independent, and self-reliant, standing apart from the constraints of society.
- Violence as Redemption: Justice, often delivered through violent means, is a core theme in Western stories, where the gunfighter or sheriff represents moral order, often through brutal methods.
- Civilisation vs. Wilderness: The West is seen as a place where civilisation and savagery clash, with pioneers and settlers working to tame the land, but often becoming entangled with or corrupted by it.
- Manifest Destiny: This notion, that Americans were divinely ordained to expand westward and control the continent, underpins much of the myth’s moral justification.
The Origins of the Myth
While the myth is often associated with 19th and 20th-century novels, it draws on older sources. Early American histories and travel narratives in the 18th century spoke of the frontier as a dangerous but promising place. James Fenimore Cooper’s Leatherstocking Tales (1823–1841), especially The Last of the Mohicans, provided early depictions of frontier life, setting the stage for what would become the standard Western story.
The stories that emerged during the settlement of the West were part history, part propaganda, serving to romanticise and justify American expansion. Buffalo Bill Cody’s Wild West Show, beginning in the 1880s, further mythologised this period, turning real historical events into spectacles of heroism and entertainment. These performances solidified images of cowboys, Native American warriors, and the untamed wilderness in the American imagination.
Zane Grey and the Birth of the Modern Western
Zane Grey’s Riders of the Purple Sage (1912) is a landmark in the development of the myth of the West. While the Western genre had existed in pulp magazines and dime novels prior, Grey’s work brought a literary sophistication that elevated the genre’s standing. His novels depicted the West as a morally complex place where lawlessness and justice were in constant conflict. His landscapes were vast and awe-inspiring, mirroring the grand, almost mythological status of his characters.
Grey’s contribution to the myth was foundational. He shaped the archetypes of the Western hero: the lone gunman, the stoic rancher, and the heroic sheriff. The romance and danger of the frontier were central themes, but Grey also began to weave in moral questions about the nature of justice and revenge. His heroes were often reluctant warriors, caught in situations that forced them to take violent action, reflecting a growing awareness of the darker side of frontier justice.
Post-War Revisions: Warlock and the Deconstruction of the West
By the mid-20th century, American culture began to reassess the romanticised version of the West. The reality of westward expansion, with its violence against Native Americans, the exploitation of land, and the often brutal realities of frontier life, began to surface in more complex narratives. Oakley Hall’s Warlock (1958) is an exemplary text of this revisionist moment.
Warlock tells the story of a fictional town and the attempts of its citizens to maintain order through the appointment of a gunman as sheriff. The novel is not only an homage to the classic Western but also a critique of its conventions. Hall explores the myth’s underlying tensions, such as the uneasy relationship between law and violence, and the ways in which heroes of the West are shaped by the expectations placed upon them. Warlock dissects the myth, questioning the moral absolutism that defined earlier Westerns and examining the costs of vigilante justice.
Blood Meridian: The West as Apocalypse
Cormac McCarthy’s Blood Meridian, published in 1985, represents a dramatic reimagining of the myth. If Zane Grey built the West as a place where morality and justice could triumph, McCarthy tore that vision apart. Blood Meridian is set in the mid-19th century and follows a young man, referred to only as “the Kid,” as he becomes entangled with a group of Indian-hunters led by the monstrous Judge Holden.
In McCarthy’s hands, the West is not a place of redemption but one of chaos, violence, and moral ambiguity. The novel is brutal, depicting the West as a wasteland where the boundaries between civilisation and savagery dissolve. Holden, a Nietzschean figure, represents a worldview in which violence is not only necessary but inherent in human nature. Unlike earlier Westerns, Blood Meridian offers no hope of redemption through violence. The novel strips away the romanticism of earlier Westerns, presenting the frontier as a space of nihilism rather than opportunity.
The West Beyond Blood Meridian
Since Blood Meridian, the myth of the West has continued to evolve, becoming increasingly complex and self-aware. Writers like Larry McMurtry (Lonesome Dove) and filmmakers like Clint Eastwood (Unforgiven) have explored the human cost of the frontier myth, portraying characters who are deeply scarred by their violent pasts. These modern interpretations question the very foundations of the Western myth, offering more nuanced portrayals of the people who lived through these times.
In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in revisionist Westerns, particularly those that explore the roles of women, people of colour, and Native Americans in the West—groups often marginalised or villainised in earlier iterations of the myth. Authors like Louise Erdrich and films like The Revenant (2015) continue to challenge the traditional Western narrative by focusing on those who were oppressed or excluded by the myth of American progress.
Notable Works that Shaped the Myth of the West
The myth of the West, as a cultural narrative, has been built and reinforced over more than a century by numerous books, films, and television shows. Each iteration has added to or re-examined the myth, contributing to its evolution. Key to the myth is the moral dichotomy often portrayed between “white hat” good versus “black hat” evil—a simplification of the moral universe that underpins many classic Westerns, where heroes and villains are easily identifiable by their appearance and actions. However, this dichotomy has become increasingly blurred in more recent interpretations of the myth, reflecting deeper, more complex moral questions.
Below is a selection of notable works that contributed to the myth of the West, presented sequentially by release.
1. James Fenimore Cooper – The Last of the Mohicans (1826)
While set in the pre-Revolutionary War period, this novel played a foundational role in establishing the frontier as a space of conflict between savagery and civilisation. It presented the wilderness as a place of danger but also opportunity, themes central to the later myth of the West. Cooper’s portrayal of Native Americans as noble savages or ruthless enemies would become standard in later Westerns.
2. Owen Wister – The Virginian (1902)
Often credited as the first true Western novel, The Virginian codified many elements that would define the genre, including the cowboy as a chivalric hero, the romanticisation of the frontier, and the classic “good vs. evil” trope. The titular character embodies the “white hat” hero, while the antagonist, Trampas, is a clear representation of the “black hat” villain. This novel cemented the moral binary that became a hallmark of Westerns for decades.
3. Zane Grey – Riders of the Purple Sage (1912)
As discussed earlier, Riders of the Purple Sage played a crucial role in solidifying the Western genre in popular fiction. Grey’s clear distinction between the virtuous protagonists and villainous antagonists reinforced the “white hat versus black hat” narrative. His stories emphasised the moral righteousness of frontier justice, and his characters often resolved their struggles through violent but justified means.
4. John Ford – Stagecoach (1939)
John Ford’s Stagecoach is one of the seminal Western films, which elevated the genre into serious cinema. In this film, the division between good and evil is clear: John Wayne’s character, the Ringo Kid, represents the classic “white hat” hero, embodying honour, courage, and justice, while the villains—criminals and outlaws—wear the metaphorical black hats. This film also introduced the idea of the frontier as a stage where different social classes and moral codes collide.
5. Howard Hawks – Red River (1948)
In Red River, Howard Hawks complicated the traditional “white hat” versus “black hat” dichotomy by portraying a conflict between two heroes. John Wayne’s character, Thomas Dunson, is a tough and morally ambiguous cattleman whose harsh methods challenge the ideal of the Western hero. This film introduces the idea that good and evil may coexist in the same individual, marking a shift from earlier, more clear-cut morality tales.
6. Fred Zinnemann – High Noon (1952)
High Noon subverts the traditional Western tropes. The story revolves around Will Kane (played by Gary Cooper), a sheriff who must face a gang of outlaws alone, after being abandoned by his community. The “white hat” sheriff is still morally right, but the film introduces a sense of isolation and moral ambiguity absent from earlier Westerns. The stark black-and-white moral universe begins to crack in High Noon, as Kane’s allies, rather than clear villains, refuse to stand by him, exposing the cowardice and complexity within the civilised townsfolk.
7. Sergio Leone – The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966)
Leone’s Spaghetti Westerns, particularly The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, introduced more complexity into the Western’s moral framework. Clint Eastwood’s “Man with No Name” occupies a grey moral space. While he is the “Good” in the film’s title, his actions are often ruthless and self-serving. The character of Tuco (the Ugly) adds further ambiguity, while Angel Eyes (the Bad) is the film’s true embodiment of evil. The black hat versus white hat trope becomes irrelevant, as characters blur the lines between good and evil, reflecting a more cynical view of the West.
8. Larry McMurtry – Lonesome Dove (1985)
Lonesome Dove is a Pulitzer Prize-winning novel that helped revive the Western in modern literature. McMurtry’s portrayal of the West is expansive and tragic, with characters like Gus McCrae and Woodrow Call embodying the traditional virtues of the “white hat” cowboy, but also dealing with the consequences of their violent lives. The novel critiques the violence and loneliness of the frontier experience, challenging the myth of heroism associated with earlier Westerns.
9. Clint Eastwood – Unforgiven (1992)
Unforgiven marks a profound departure from traditional Westerns by deconstructing the myth of the West. Eastwood’s character, William Munny, is a former gunslinger drawn back into violence, but the film portrays killing as an ugly, brutal act with lasting consequences. The white hat versus black hat trope is dismantled; there are no true heroes or villains, only flawed men wrestling with their violent pasts. The film asks whether redemption is even possible in a world so steeped in bloodshed.
10. Cormac McCarthy – Blood Meridian (1985)
As mentioned earlier, Blood Meridian takes the myth of the West to its most nihilistic conclusion. The novel’s characters operate in a moral void, with violence being an inevitable and central part of life on the frontier. McCarthy’s Judge Holden is a figure of pure evil, existing beyond traditional notions of good and evil, while the protagonist, “the Kid,” drifts between these worlds. In Blood Meridian, the traditional “white hat” hero does not exist, and the “black hat” evil is unrelenting and absolute.
11. James Mangold – Logan (2017)
Though not a traditional Western, Logan draws heavily on the genre’s themes and iconography, particularly the moral decay and violence of the frontier. The character of Logan (Wolverine) is portrayed as a former hero now worn down by years of violence, mirroring the ageing cowboys of films like Unforgiven. The film portrays a world where clear distinctions between good and evil are impossible, and Logan must wrestle with the legacy of his violent past, evoking the same moral complexity seen in modern Westerns.
Conclusion: The Ever-Changing Myth
The myth of the West has undergone significant transformations, from the romantic idealism of Zane Grey’s Riders of the Purple Sage to the violent nihilism of Blood Meridian. It began as a way to glorify the expansion of American civilisation but has been deconstructed and reimagined over time to reveal the darker, more troubling aspects of that process.
The moral dichotomy of “white hat” versus “black hat” dominated the Western genre in its early years, reinforcing a worldview where good and evil were easily identifiable and justice could be meted out through violence. However, as the myth of the West evolved, this binary view of morality became more complicated. From John Ford’s Stagecoach to Cormac McCarthy’s Blood Meridian, Westerns began to question whether violence could truly serve as a tool for justice and whether heroes were always good.
The myth persists because it speaks to enduring questions about law, violence, morality, and human nature. While our understanding of the West has become more complicated, its power as a symbol of struggle, freedom, and conflict continues to shape our culture. The myth of the West is not static; it is a living narrative that will likely continue to evolve, reflecting the complexities of history and the American experience.